„Hochselektive Zugangssysteme zum Tertiärbereich können dazu beitragen, dass Bildungsteilnehmer ein oder mehrere Jahre Auszeit einlegen. In Finnland beispielsweise kommt es häufig vor, dass Bildungsteilnehmer sich für bestimmte tertiäre Bildungsgänge mehrfach bewerben müssen, bevor sie aufgenommen werden, was erklärt, warum weniger als 30 % der Bildungsteilnehmer direkt aus dem Sekundarbereich II in den Tertiärbereich eintreten.“
OECD (Hrsg.), Bildung auf einen Blick 2022 (2022), S. 232.

„Die medizinischen Diplomstudien weisen die höchste Abschlussquote (82,0 %) innerhalb von zehn Jahren auf. 2006/07 wurde in Österreich der Zugang zum Medizinstudium rigoros beschränkt und die Quotenregelung eingeführt. […] Insgesamt haben 63,0 % der Studierenden aus der Kohorte der Erstimmatrikulierten 2010/11 innerhalb von zehn Jahren mindestens ein Studium an einer österreichischen Hochschule abgeschlossen.“
Statistik Austria (Hrsg.), Bildung in Zahlen 2020/21. Schlüsselindikatoren und Analysen (2022), S. 66.

„Bei der Analyse der Studienverläufe von Erststudien an öffentlichen Universitäten und Fachhochschulen weisen an den öffentlichen Universitäten die rigoros zugangsbeschränkten medizinischen Diplomstudien die höchste Abschlussquote (83,0 %) innerhalb von zehn Jahren auf, gefolgt von den Bachelorstudien der Künste, die ebenfalls strengen Zugangsbeschränkungen unterliegen und eine Abschlussquote von 74,4 % erreichen.“
Statistik Austria (Hrsg.), Österreichischer Zahlenspiegel, Juni 2021 (Juni 2021), S. 5.

„In Finnland und Schweden gibt es Zulassungsbeschränkungen für viele Bildungsgänge und Fächergruppen, was dazu führt, dass mehr als 60 % der Bewerber abgelehnt werden.“
OECD (Hrsg.), Bildung auf einen Blick 2021 (2021), S. 223.

„In Shanghai, China, one of the two most popular tutoring companies charged US$1,200 a month for grade 9 students, effectively excluding most families. An entrance examination excluded low achievers.“
UNESCO (Hrsg.), Non-state actors in education (2021), S. 53.

„Durch die Aufnahmeverfahren wurden die Erfolgsquoten aller Gruppen deutlich gesteigert, wobei die Steigerung bei Studierenden mit Eltern ohne Matura noch höher ausfällt als bei Studierenden aus AkademikerInnen-Familien.“
IHS (Hrsg.), Evaluierung der Zugangsregelungen nach § 71b, § 71c, § 71d UG 2002 (2020), S. 144.

„Die mit Abstand höchste Erfolgsquote gibt es an öffentlichen Universitäten […] im Diplomstudium Medizin, welches von der Beginnkohorte des Wintersemesters 2010/11 nach 18 Semestern von 76 % aller Studierenden abgeschlossen wurde. Einen besonders deutlichen Anstieg der Erfolgsquoten in Medizinstudien gab es vor allem mit der Einführung flächendeckender Aufnahmeverfahren im Studienjahr 2005/06. Im Vergleich dazu haben nach 18 Semestern nur 27 % aller DiplomanfängerInnen in der Studiengruppe Recht ihr begonnenes Studium abgeschlossen, 17 % haben ein anderes Studium abgeschlossen und 38 % haben alle Universitätsstudien abgebrochen.“
IHS (Hrsg.), Studienverläufe – Der Weg durchs Studium (2020), S. 86.

„Im Studienjahr 2019/20 wurden von den 12.845 TeilnehmerInnen des Aufnahmetests (MedAT) 1.755 Personen (14 %) zu einem Medizinstudium an einer öffentlichen Universität zugelassen.“
IHS (Hrsg.), Studierenden-Sozialerhebung 2019 (2020), S. 52.

„In Finnland und Schweden gibt es Zulassungsbeschränkungen für viele Bildungsgänge und Fächergruppen, was dazu führt, dass mehr als 60 % der Bewerber abgelehnt werden.“
OECD (Hrsg.), Bildung auf einen Blick 2020. OECD-Indikatoren (2020), S. 248.

„Children view allocation to a secondary school track as important and exhibit strong preferences for higher tracks. […] Granting parents free choice effectively reduces incentives for children to perform well in primary school in order to be allowed to attend a higher track.“
Maximilian Bach u. a., Understanding the Response to High-Stakes Incentives in Primary Education (2020), S. 1f.

„Achievement-based selection can improve student achievement before selection takes place by raising incentives to study. This effect has to be taken into account when evaluating school systems with different degrees of selectivity. Our results suggest, for example, that even if students do not benefit from attending selective schools, the presence of selective schools alone can enhance skill acquisition if strong preferences for them induces greater study effort.“
Maximilian Bach u. a., Understanding the Response to High-Stakes Incentives in Primary Education (2020), S. 6.

„Academic admissions criteria become more common in secondary education when students begin to be assigned to different educational tracks or pathways based on their ability or aptitude. A third of the education systems start this academic selection process as early as lower secondary education.“
EU-Kommission (Hrsg.), Equity in school education in Europe (2020), S. 99.

„In Estonia, France and Finland, schools are generally allowed to use admissions criteria. For example, in Finland, schools with certain subject specialisations (but still following the same national curriculum) can set admissions criteria to assess students’ disposition or aptitude for certain subjects.“
EU-Kommission (Hrsg.), Equity in school education in Europe (2020), S. 103.

„In the Netherlands, all students sit a standardised test in the last year of primary school. The results of this test together with the recommendation of teachers from the previous school constitute the advice taken on the student’s academic performance which influences the educational pathway to which a student can gain access. It should be emphasised that the advice from teachers has a greater weight in admissions than the results of the standardised test.“
EU-Kommission (Hrsg.), Equity in school education in Europe (2020), S. 112.

„In Estonia, schools are allowed to arrange school-based tests, but these are optional. Most of the schools select students based on previous academic results and hold interviews with student candidates to establish their interests, attitudes and learning motivation.“
EU-Kommission (Hrsg.), Equity in school education in Europe (2020), S. 133.

„Admission to postsecondary education is based on upper-secondary school grades and, often, entrance examinations.“
Univ.-Prof. Dr. Juho Härkönen u. a., Educational Transitions and Educational Inequality. In: European Sociological Review, 2020, Vol. 36, No. 5, S. 705.

„The dominant pedagogical orientation in China’s schools is related to the prevalence of the exam-oriented culture. High-stakes summative assessments are an important part of the educational experience, in addition to the selective national examinations.“
OECD (Hrsg.), Benchmarking the Performance of China's Education System (2020), S. 23.

„China‘s education system tends to place a high value on the student outcomes from summative assessments. Standardised exams and tests are the most prevalent assessment practices that determine students‘ progression from one education level to the next, such as the national, standardised university entrance exam, Gaokao.“
OECD (Hrsg.), Benchmarking the Performance of China's Education System (2020), S. 82.

Finnland: „Recent general upper secondary graduates can face waiting times of several years to get access to the highly restricted university places. Taking as an example the cohort of those who graduated with general upper secondary education in 2011, 77 % applied to higher education in the year of graduation, yet only 38 % were able to enter higher education in that year.“
OECD (Hrsg.), Continuous Learning in Working Life in Finland, Getting Skills Right (2020), S. 51

„Measuring children’s emergent literacy skills can provide important information about where policy makers, teachers and parents could focus attention and resources in order to promote positive and equitable early literacy development and, in turn, improve children’s life chances. The emergent literacy skills measured in IELS are those most closely related to and predictive of later literacy achievement, as well as other positive educational and later life outcomes.“
OECD (Hrsg.), Early Learning and Child Well‑being (2020), S. 81.

„On average across OECD countries, 66 % of students in upper secondary schools were enrolled in academically selective schools, while 38 % of students in lower secondary schools were enrolled in such schools.“
OECD (Hrsg.), PISA 2018 Results. Effective Policies, Successful Schools (2020), S. 75.

„Studies have shown that numeracy competence as assessed at school entry is the strongest predictor of later mathematical achievement and strongly predicts achievement in other academic domains. Better emergent numeracy skills in childhood are associated with higher socio-economic status in adulthood and with better self-reported health outcomes.“
OECD (Hrsg.), Early Learning and Child Well‑being (2020), S. 81.

„Studien zeigen, dass die Chancengerechtigkeit in jenen Kantonen grösser ist, in denen die Eltern bei der Wahl der Bildungsstufe kein Mitspracherecht haben.“
Univ.-Prof. Dr. Margrit Stamm, Neue Zürcher Zeitung online am 8. November 2019.

„In Finnland […] kommt es häufig vor, dass Bildungsteilnehmer sich für bestimmte tertiäre Bildungsgänge mehrfach bewerben müssen, bevor sie aufgenommen werden, und die finnische Regierung bemüht sich aktiv, die Anzahl der Jahre zwischen dem Abschluss des Sekundarbereichs II und dem Eintritt in den Tertiärbereich zu reduzieren.“
OECD (Hrsg.), Bildung auf einen Blick 2019 (2019), S. 227.

China: „At age fifteen, after nine years of compulsory education, Chinese students wishing to continue their formal education must pass the senior high school entrance examination (zhongkao). Based on the test results, students are then assigned to either regular or vocational high school.“
Univ.-Prof. Dr. Matthias Doepke u. a., „Love, Money and Parenting“ (2019), S. 283

Japans „Escalator Schools“: „The selective admission process for escalator schools puts a great strain on families. […] Children start preparing for this high-stakes exam when they are just three years old. The admission process is very competitive. Around 8 percent of the five-year-old kids in Tokyo attend escalator schools, but many more would like to.“
Univ.-Prof. Dr. Matthias Doepke u. a., „Love, Money and Parenting“ (2019), S. 289

Japan: „A high school entrance examination determines admission into secondary schools, which vary in quality and ambition.“
Univ.-Prof. Dr. Matthias Doepke u. a., „Love, Money and Parenting“ (2019), S. 290

„The proportion of school admissions based on academic performance increased significantly in 34 of the 59 countries and economies that participated in PISA in both 2009 and 2015. […] The trend towards more selectivity is observed between 2009 and 2015 in both lower and upper secondary schools in many countries.“
OECD (Hrsg.), „Balancing School Choice and Equity: An International Perspective Based on PISA“ (2019), S. 39

„Finland has one of the most selective higher education system (sic!) in the OECD, with 67% of applicants rejected each year, compared with an OECD average of 30%. This high selectivity delays the start of studies, forcing applicants to take unwanted gap years and repeat the tests. Only 25% of upper secondary graduates manage to continue their tertiary studies immediately after graduation and the average age at which Finnish students enter tertiary education for the first time is amongst the highest in the OECD.“
OECD (Hrsg.), „Investing in Youth: Finland“ (2019), S. 14

„Among OECD countries that were imposing specific entry criteria in 2016, Finland was the most selective with 67% of applicants rejected, compared with an OECD average of 30%. […] Only 25% of upper secondary graduates manage to continue their tertiary studies immediately after graduation, and the average age at which Finnish students enter tertiary education for the first time is amongst the highest in the OECD.“
OECD (Hrsg.), „Investing in Youth: Finland“ (2019), S. 55

Südkorea: „Most large employers and public institutions use general recruitment exams to recruit groups of hires. As a result, recent graduates often invest months, and sometimes even years, preparing for those company exams.“
OECD (Hrsg.), Investing in Youth. Korea (2019), S. 14.

„Studies in Finland show the influence of the distinctive school choices made by the upper social class. Since 1998, school choice has increased in popularity, as have schools with a special subject emphasis (e.g., science, arts, or sports) and selective admission by aptitude tests.“
Univ.-Prof. Dr. Katariina Salmela-Aro u.a., Socioeconomic Inequality and Student Outcomes in Finnish Schools (2019), S. 13.

„Based on a survey of 38 countries and economies, most have some form of selective admission to public tertiary education, at least in some fields or to some institutions. Centralised admission systems into public tertiary institutions are used in one-third of the countries and economies and may be used as a way to limit admissions. Performance assessment of applicants through national/central examinations taken towards the end of upper secondary education is used as a selection test for entry into at least some public institutions in half of the countries. Entrance examinations administered by tertiary institutions are also used in one-third of countries.“

OECD (Hrsg.), „Education Indicators in Focus 63“ (Oktober 2018), S. 2

„With centralised systems, some countries limit the number of applications or preferences that each student can submit, or limit the number of offers made to students. While there are no limitations in Greece, Italy and New Zealand, the maximum number of applications ranges from 2 in Brazil to 24 in Turkey and France in 2015. In Chile, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Lithuania, Portugal, Slovenia, Sweden and Turkey, students can submit several applications, but will receive only one offer.“

OECD (Hrsg.), „Education Indicators in Focus 63“ (Oktober 2018), S. 3

„Children of lower and higher educated parents are increasingly separated into different schools. The parental choice system in the Netherlands is contributing to creating more segregated schools and strengthens the effects of residential separation.“
EU-Kommission, Education and Training Monitor 2018 (2018), S. 212.

„The selection of the new students is mostly based on matriculation examination, entrance examination or, very often, a combination of these two. The decisions about the selection procedures are under the control of the HE (Anm.: higher education) institutions and are therefore institution and discipline centred. The competition is harsh, as the number of applicants is still multiple in relation to the available study positions.“
Univ.-Prof. Dr. Sonja Kosunen u. a., Preparatory course market and access to higher education in Finland (2018), S. 4.

„Without selection schools are unable to promote individual mobility.“
Univ.-Prof. Dr. Michael S. Merry u. a., Can schools fairly select their students? In: Theory and Research in Education, 2018, Vol. 16(3), S. 332.

„A fair selection process requires that candidates be evaluated based on factors relevant to the type of educational opportunity being offered.“
Univ.-Prof. Dr. Michael S. Merry u. a., Can schools fairly select their students? In: Theory and Research in Education, 2018, Vol. 16(3), S. 338.

„Our ethical analysis suggests that inequities in selection procedures can be significantly mitigated by looking at aptitude in more complex ways, and by incorporating self-correcting mechanisms into the process. Multiple forms of assessment, too, may be used, and the more frequent the better, in order to capture important developmental changes as well as make the appropriate adjustments to the educational opportunities a child receives.“
Univ.-Prof. Dr. Michael S. Merry u. a., Can schools fairly select their students? In: Theory and Research in Education, 2018, Vol. 16(3), S. 346.

Niederlande: „During grade 8 (Anm.: d. h. im 12. Lebensjahr), all pupils – and their parents – receive what is called 'school advice', which is based on the national Cito test score and on the opinion of the teacher. In practice this is not just advice: it has important consequences for the type of school the pupil can be admitted to. The advice takes the form of an official document for the secondary school; it is given during a parent-teacher meeting to discuss the Cito test score and, more generally, the development and attitude of the pupil over the years.“

OECD (Hrsg.), „Catching Up? Country Studies on Intergenerational Mobility and Children of Immigrants“ (2018), S. 102

„Denmark launched a reform of its VET system in 2015 that included increasing performance requirements in Danish and maths to gain access to vocational schools.“
OECD (Hrsg.), „Responsive School Systems“ (2018), S. 253

Frankreich: „Wer wirklich Karriere machen will, besucht zudem eine der zahlreichen, großenteils privaten Ingenieurschulen und Handelshochschulen oder eine Elitehochschule (grande école) wie die École Normale Supérieure und die École Polytechnique. Um hier aufgenommen zu werden, muss man sogenannte Vorbereitungsklassen (classes préparatoires) durchlaufen, die in einem zweijährigen arbeitsintensiven Paukstudium auf die Aufnahmeprüfung der betreffenden Hochschule vorbereiten.“
Dr. Rainer Bölling, „Hochschulzugang, Kompetenzniveau und Arbeitsmarkt im internationalen Vergleich“. In: Lin-Klitzing u. a., „Leistungsstandards und Leistungsbewertung an Gymnasien und Universitäten“ (2017), S. 149

„Der Gaokao bestimmt, ob und an welcher Universität studiert werden kann, und ist […] zukunftsentscheidend für chinesische Schulabgängerinnen und -abgänger. Bestimmte obere Mittelschulen sind bekannt dafür, optimal auf die Hochschuleingangsprüfung vorzubereiten; allerdings müssen Jugendliche hervorragende Leistungen in der Eingangsprüfung für die obere Mittelschule (chinesisch zhongkao) erbringen, um an diesen exzellenten Schulen aufgenommen werden zu können. Diese beiden Prüfungen – Gaokao und Zhongkao – setzen einen Abwärtsdruck in Gang, da diese Elite-Mittelschulen renommierte untere Mittelschulen voraussetzen, die wiederum nur aus exzellenten Grundschulen rekrutieren. Für viele Eltern beginnt die Planung der Bildungskarriere ihres Kindes somit mit der Wahl des richtigen Kindergartens, der auf ein durch Leistungs- und Prüfungsdruck geprägtes Schulleben vorbereiten soll.“

Univ.-Prof. Dr. Barbara Schulte, „China“ (2017), S. 10

„Teacher recommendations for secondary school tracks carry greater force in some federal states than in others and this in turn moderates the strength of social background effects on educational transitions: Background effects tend to be weaker when teacher recommendations are binding than when they are nonbinding.“

Dr. Jan Paul Heisig, „Measuring the signaling value of educational degrees: secondary education systems and the internal homogeneity of educational groups“ (2017), S. 27

„The Dutch system is segmented, with several different types of schools at every stage after primary, and end-of-sector tests contribute to the decision about where students should be placed in the next stage. However, teachers’ judgements are considered along with performance on the tests in making these decisions. […] In each subject, the leaving exam includes school-based assessments as well as centrally designed standardized test.“

Univ.-Prof. Dr. Daniel Koretz, „The Testing Charade. Pretending to Make Schools Better” (2017), S. 213f

Japan: „High school admission is typically based on highly competitive entrance examinations administered by the prefectural or municipal boards of education or directly through private high schools. The three years of junior high school are therefore a particularly important period during pupils’ lives as they determine whether a young person will be able to attend a prestigious upper-secondary school.“

OECD (Hrsg.), „Investing in Youth: Japan“ (2017), S. 111

„In Macao (China), although there are no national examinations, schools conduct their own entrance examinations at both the lower and upper secondary levels.“

OECD (Hrsg.), „PISA 2015 Results (Volume II): Policies and Practices for Successful Schools (2016), S. 130

„At the end of lower secondary school (ninth grade), all students must take the Lower Secondary School Graduation Examination in Shanghai. The subjects tested include Chinese, math, English, physics, and chemistry. Physical education, lab operations, and moral ethics of students also factor into students’ final exam scores. The exam serves the dual purposes of selection into high schools and providing information on the overall performance of the basic education system. The total score on the exam determines the type of high school in which students will enroll: admission into highly selective comprehensive schools requires outstanding performance on the exam. […] Because of its primary purpose as a mechanism for selection into high school, the zhong kao has become increasingly high stakes for children in Shanghai. The test ultimately determines in which type of high school ninth-grade graduates can enroll.“

Weltbank (Hrsg.), „How Shanghai Does It“ (2016), S. 90f

Niederlande: „At the end of primary school, around age 12, pupils choose one of three options: pre-vocational secondary education (vmbo, 4 years), senior general secondary education (havo, 5 years) or pre university education (vwo, 6 years). Selection occurs with the advice of the teacher as main determinant, although a national test (CITO-toets) taken by most children also plays a large role.”

Univ.-Prof. Dr. Marca Wolfensberger, „Talent Development in European Higher Education“ (2015), S. 44f

Dänemark: „A secondary education diploma does not guarantee a place in higher education. Admission depends on the number of 'student seats' available. For every study program at a higher education institution, a maximum number of students is set. For some studies this number is decided centrally by the ministry, for others it is set by the institution.“

Univ.-Prof. Dr. Marca Wolfensberger, „Talent Development in European Higher Education“ (2015), S. 108

Norwegen: „Admission to Norwegian universities is a complicated process, partly dependent on grades. Students who follow a general training path at the upper secondary school will take exams that lead to general university admission certification, called generell studiekompetanse. This diploma is a requirement to be admitted to universities, but it does not guarantee placement.“

Univ.-Prof. Dr. Marca Wolfensberger, „Talent Development in European Higher Education“ (2015), S. 129

Schweden: „Admission to higher education depends on upper secondary grades and a national admission test that students can take voluntarily. A numerus clausus principle applies to all higher education study programs, meaning that there is a great deal of competition for seats in the most popular programs.“

Univ.-Prof. Dr. Marca Wolfensberger, „Talent Development in European Higher Education“ (2015), S. 143

Finnland: „Entrance to higher education is highly selective and all study paths are subject to quota. The amount of seats for each study path at each HEI (Anm.: Higher Education Institution) is determined in negotiations with the ministry of Education and Culture. Universities and polytechnics select their students independently. Institutions apply different selection criteria, but the most common procedure includes the grades attained in the matriculation examination together with the results of an entrance examination. On average, about one third of those taking the exam gain access to university.“

Univ.-Prof. Dr. Marca Wolfensberger, „Talent Development in European Higher Education“ (2015), S. 157

Finnland: „The upper secondary level has witnessed an increase in the number of 'special schools', focusing on the education of talented youngsters in arts, sports, science and languages. According to Finnish researchers Kirsi Tirri and Elina Kuusisto, 'these special schools can just as well be called schools for the gifted and talented as it is very difficult to be accepted into them'. Selection is based on the marks of the student, while most places organize their own admission exam as well.“

Univ.-Prof. Dr. Marca Wolfensberger, „Talent Development in European Higher Education“ (2015), S. 159

Finnland: „A national entrance exam is taken for every study program and admission is based on these exam results. Competition for places in popular programs is fierce.“

Univ.-Prof. Dr. Marca Wolfensberger, „Talent Development in European Higher Education“ (2015), S. 249

„Ich würde für einen Übergang nach der vierten Klasse mit einer auch auf Tests gestützten Übergangsprognostik eintreten, deren Trefferquote besser ist als das Lehrerurteil. Sie kann die weitere Bildungskarriere relativ gut voraussagen.“

Univ.-Prof. Dr. Heinz-Elmar Tenorth, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung online am 31. Juli 2014

„Top performers in science at age 15 tend to be in schools where others are also high performers and from relatively advantaged socio-economic backgrounds. Many such schools select students according to their academic record and many of them are private.“

OECD (Hrsg.), „Education Today 2013“ (2013), S. 106

Vietnam: „From the late 1980s, gifted math classes of the universities and then gifted schools around the country have conducted their independent entrance examination process so as to select the gifted math students and intensively develop their talent according to their own requirements.“

Nguyen Van Tuan u. a., „Talent Support in Vietnamese Education“. In: Győri, „International horizons of talent support II. Best practices within and without the European Union II“ (2012), S. 204f

„Singapore has only a few institutions of higher education […] and, consequently, admission is highly competitive.“

Dr. János Gordon Győri, „Talent Support in Southeast Asia: The Singapore Example“. In: Győri, „International horizons of talent support. Best practices within and without the European Union“ (2011), S. 149

„Singapore’s Primary School leaving Examination at the end of Year 6 is not just one more standardized test. It carries astonishingly high stakes. Pupils’ scores affect the status of the secondary school they or their parents might be able to choose and the stream (or track) that they will be assigned to.”

Univ.-Prof. Dr. Andy Hargreaves u. a., „The global fourth way“ (2011), S. 74

Finnland: „At secondary level, 37 of the 463 general secondary schools of the country provide special education. These could also be defined as talent support institutions, for it is very difficult to be admitted there. Selection is based on the marks of the student, while most places organise their own admission exam as well.“

Balázs Hornyák, „Pillars of Talent Support in Finland“. In: „Győri, „International horizons of talent support. Best practices within and without the European Union“ (2011), S. 56